W was right when he said "I TRUST MY GUT"

Our Co-Brain

 
What are all those little guys thinking?

More and more discoveries are pooping popping out about our enormous, complex, co-evolved microbiomes. One of the most exciting (to excitable me) discoveries is how much our gut biomes affect out brains, particularly our moods.  
There's this 


How gut bacteria may affect anxiety

 (Click if you're anxious)


And this:

Microbes can play games with the mind


... And in the scientific journal Microbiome, there are more research articles than you can shake a fecal transplant at! (See below)

BOTTOM LINE (Ahem)... All this and more about the role of the microbiome in our health and sanity is (careful here) flowing out of the science/medicine community. It is, IMHO, a monster discovery zone, clearly one of the most important areas of scientific pursuit, right up there with the findings coming from the Large Hadron Collider, NASA, LIGO, Altacama, et al, and will have more impact on you and me personally than all those high price endeavors combined.
Or so I PREDICT!  (I just love to predict.)










References (from Microbiome)

  1. Cryan JF, Dinan TG. Mind-altering microorganisms: the impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2012;13(10):701–12.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  2. Foster JA, Neufeld K-AM. Gut–brain axis: how the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. Trends Neurosci. 2013;36(5):305–12.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  3. Hsiao EY, McBride SW, Hsien S, Sharon G, Hyde ER, McCue T, et al. Microbiota modulate behavioral and physiological abnormalities associated with neurodevelopmental disorders. Cell. 2013;155(7):1451–63.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  4. Luczynski P, Neufeld K-AM, Oriach CS, Clarke G, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Growing up in a bubble: using germ-free animals to assess the influence of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol. 2016;19(18).Google Scholar
  5. Neufeld K-AM, Kang N, Bienenstock J, Foster JA. Effects of intestinal microbiota on anxiety-like behavior. Commun Integr Biol. 2011;4(4):492–4.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  6. Clarke G, Grenham S, Scully P, Fitzgerald P, Moloney R, Shanahan F, et al. The microbiome-gut-brain axis during early life regulates the hippocampal serotonergic system in a sex-dependent manner. Mol Psychiatry. 2013;18(6):666–73.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  7. Hoban A, Stilling R, Moloney G, Shanahan F, Dinan T, Clarke G, et al. The microbiome regulates amygdala-dependent fear recall. Mol Psychiatry. 2017;Google Scholar
  8. Desbonnet L, Clarke G, Shanahan F, Dinan T, Cryan J. Microbiota is essential for social development in the mouse. Mol Psychiatry. 2014;19(2):146.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  9. Arentsen T, Raith H, Qian Y, Forssberg H, Heijtz RD. Host microbiota modulates development of social preference in mice. Microb Ecol Health Dis. 2015;26:29719.Google Scholar
  10. Zheng P, Zeng B, Zhou C, Liu M, Fang Z, Xu X, et al. Gut microbiome remodeling induces depressive-like behaviors through a pathway mediated by the host’s metabolism. Mol Psychiatry. 2016;21(6):786–96.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  11. Desbonnet L, Clarke G, Traplin A, O’Sullivan O, Crispie F, Moloney RD, et al. Gut microbiota depletion from early adolescence in mice: implications for brain and behaviour. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;48:165–73.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  12. Fröhlich EE, Farzi A, Mayerhofer R, Reichmann F, Jačan A, Wagner B, et al. Cognitive impairment by antibiotic-induced gut dysbiosis: analysis of gut microbiota-brain communication. Brain Behav Immun. 2016;56:140-55.Google Scholar
  13. Möhle L, Mattei D, Heimesaat MM, Bereswill S, Fischer A, Alutis M, et al. Ly6C hi monocytes provide a link between antibiotic-induced changes in gut microbiota and adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Cell Rep. 2016;15(9):1945–56.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  14. Bravo JA, Forsythe P, Chew MV, Escaravage E, Savignac HM, Dinan TG, et al. Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2011;108(38):16050–5.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  15. Savignac HM, Couch Y, Stratford M, Bannerman DM, Tzortzis G, Anthony DC, et al. Prebiotic administration normalizes lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced anxiety and cortical 5-HT2A receptor and IL1-β levels in male mice. Brain Behav Immun. 2016;52:120–31.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  16. Shin LM, Liberzon I. The neurocircuitry of fear, stress, and anxiety disorders. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2010;35(1):169–91.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  17. Calhoon GG, Tye KM. Resolving the neural circuits of anxiety. Nat Neurosci. 2015;18(10):1394–404.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  18. Hoban A, Stilling R, Ryan F, Shanahan F, Dinan T, Claesson M, et al. Regulation of prefrontal cortex myelination by the microbiota. Transl Psychiatry. 2016;6(4):e774.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  19. Luczynski P, Whelan SO, O'Sullivan C, Clarke G, Shanahan F, Dinan TG, et al. Adult microbiota-deficient mice have distinct dendritic morphological changes: differential effects in the amygdala and hippocampus. Eur J Neurosci. 2016;44(9):2654-6.Google Scholar
  20. Holmes A. Genetic variation in cortico-amygdala serotonin function and risk for stress-related disease. Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2008;32(7):1293–314.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  21. Etkin A. Neurobiology of anxiety: from neural circuits to novel solutions? Depress Anxiety. 2012;29(5):355–8.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  22. Alural B, Genc S, Haggarty SJ. Diagnostic and therapeutic potential of microRNAs in neuropsychiatric disorders: past, present, and future. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2016; 73:87-103.Google Scholar
  23. Griggs EM, Young EJ, Rumbaugh G, Miller CA. MicroRNA-182 regulates amygdala-dependent memory formation. J Neurosci. 2013;33(4):1734–40.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  24. Dias BG, Goodman JV, Ahluwalia R, Easton AE, Andero R, Ressler KJ. Amygdala-dependent fear memory consolidation via miR-34a and Notch signaling. Neuron. 2014;83(4):906–18.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  25. Hamilton DE, Cooke CL, Carter BS, Akil H, Watson SJ, Thompson RC. Basal microRNA expression patterns in reward circuitry of selectively bred high-responder and low-responder rats vary by brain region and genotype. Physiol Genomics. 2014;46(8):290–301.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  26. Murphy CP, Li X, Maurer V, Oberhauser M, Gstir R, Wearick-Silva LE, et al. MicroRNA-mediated rescue of fear extinction memory by miR-144-3p in extinction-impaired mice. Biol Psychiatry. 2016; 81(12):979-89.Google Scholar
  27. Stilling RM, Ryan FJ, Hoban AE, Shanahan F, Clarke G, Claesson MJ, et al. Microbes & neurodevelopment—absence of microbiota during early life increases activity-related transcriptional pathways in the amygdala. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;50:209–20.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  28. Motherway MOC, Zomer A, Leahy SC, Reunanen J, Bottacini F, Claesson MJ, et al. Functional genome analysis of Bifidobacterium breve UCC2003 reveals type IVb tight adherence (Tad) pili as an essential and conserved host-colonization factor. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2011;108(27):11217–22.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
  29. Kelly JR, Borre Y, O'Brien C, Patterson E, El Aidy S, Deane J, et al. Transferring the blues: depression-associated gut microbiota induces neurobehavioural changes in the rat. J Psychiatr Res. 2016;82:109–18.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  30. Hoban AE, Moloney RD, Golubeva AV, Neufeld KM, O’Sullivan O, Patterson E, et al. Behavioural and neurochemical consequences of chronic gut microbiota depletion during adulthood in the rat. Neuroscience. 2016;339:463–77.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  31. Vasudevan S, Tong Y, Steitz JA. Switching from repression to activation: microRNAs can up-regulate translation. Science. 2007;318(5858):1931–4.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  32. Livak KJ, Schmittgen TD. Analysis of relative gene expression data using real-time quantitative PCR and the 2−ΔΔCT method. Methods. 2001;25(4):402–8.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  33. Ragu Varman D, Marimuthu G, Emmanuvel RK. Environmental enrichment upregulates micro-RNA-183 and alters acetylcholinesterase splice variants to reduce anxiety-like behavior in the little Indian field mouse (Mus booduga). J Neurosci Res. 2013;91(3):426–35.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  34. Tian N, Cao Z, Zhang Y. MiR-206 decreases brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels in a transgenic mouse model of Alzheimer’s disease. Neurosci Bull. 2014;30(2):191–7.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  35. Sherwin E, Sandhu KV, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. May the force be with you: the light and dark sides of the microbiota–gut–brain axis in neuropsychiatry. CNS Drugs. 2016;30(11):1019–41.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  36. Neufeld K, Kang N, Bienenstock J, Foster J. Reduced anxiety-like behavior and central neurochemical change in germ-free mice. Neurogastroenterol Motil. 2011;23(3):255–e119.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  37. Sudo N, Chida Y, Aiba Y, Sonoda J, Oyama N, Yu XN, et al. Postnatal microbial colonization programs the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal system for stress response in mice. J Physiol. 2004;558(1):263–75.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  38. Heijtz RD, Wang S, Anuar F, Qian Y, Björkholm B, Samuelsson A, et al. Normal gut microbiota modulates brain development and behavior. Proc Natl Acad Sci. 2011;108(7):3047–52.View ArticlePubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  39. Borre YE, O’Keeffe GW, Clarke G, Stanton C, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Microbiota and neurodevelopmental windows: implications for brain disorders. Trends Mol Med. 2014;20(9):509–18.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  40. J-J C, B-H Z, W-W L, C-J Z, S-H F, Cheng K, et al. Effects of gut microbiota on the microRNA and mRNA expression in the hippocampus of mice. Behav Brain Res. 2017;322:34–41.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
  41. Meerson A, Cacheaux L, Goosens KA, Sapolsky RM, Soreq H, Kaufer D. Changes in brain microRNAs contribute to cholinergic stress reactions. J Mol Neurosci. 2010;40(1–2):47–55.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  42. Bocchio-Chiavetto L, Maffioletti E, Bettinsoli P, Giovannini C, Bignotti S, Tardito D, et al. Blood microRNA changes in depressed patients during antidepressant treatment. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol. 2013;23(7):602–11.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  43. Lundberg R, Toft MF, August B, Hansen AK, Hansen CH. Antibiotic-treated versus germ-free rodents for microbiota transplantation studies. Gut Microbes. 2016;7(1):68–74.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  44. Nguyen TLA, Vieira-Silva S, Liston A, Raes J. How informative is the mouse for human gut microbiota research? Dis Model Mech. 2015;8(1):1–16.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  45. Arrieta M-C, Walter J, Finlay BB. Human microbiota-associated mice: a model with challenges. Cell Host Microbe. 2016;19(5):575–8.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  46. Chen R, Kelly G, Sengupta A, Heydendael W, Nicholas B, Beltrami S, et al. MicroRNAs as biomarkers of resilience or vulnerability to stress. Neuroscience. 2015;305:36–48.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  47. Bercik P, Denou E, Collins J, Jackson W, Lu J, Jury J, et al. The intestinal microbiota affect central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice. Gastroenterology. 2011;141(2):599–609. e3View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  48. Park H, Poo M-M. Neurotrophin regulation of neural circuit development and function. Nat Rev Neurosci. 2013;14(1):7–23.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  49. Stilling R, Dinan T, Cryan J. Microbial genes, brain & behaviour–epigenetic regulation of the gut–brain axis. Genes Brain Behav. 2014;13(1):69–86.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  50. Stilling RM, Bordenstein SR, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Friends with social benefits: host-microbe interactions as a driver of brain evolution and development? Front Cell Infect Microbiol. 2014;4:147.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  51. Tapocik JD, Barbier E, Flanigan M, Solomon M, Pincus A, Pilling A, et al. microRNA-206 in rat medial prefrontal cortex regulates BDNF expression and alcohol drinking. J Neurosci. 2014;34(13):4581–8.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  52. Lee ST, Chu K, Jung KH, Kim JH, Huh JY, Yoon H, et al. miR-206 regulates brain-derived neurotrophic factor in Alzheimer disease model. Ann Neurol. 2012;72(2):269–77.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  53. Im H-I, Kenny PJ. MicroRNAs in neuronal function and dysfunction. Trends Neurosci. 2012;35(5):325–34.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  54. Loohuis NO, Kole K, Glennon J, Karel P, Van der Borg G, Van Gemert Y, et al. Elevated microRNA-181c and microRNA-30d levels in the enlarged amygdala of the valproic acid rat model of autism. Neurobiol Dis. 2015;80:42–53.View ArticleGoogle Scholar
  55. Forsythe P, Bienenstock J, Kunze WA. Vagal pathways for microbiome-brain-gut axis communication. Microbial endocrinology: the microbiota-gut-brain axis in health and disease. New York: Springer; 2014. p. 115–33.Google Scholar
  56. Koh A, De Vadder F, Kovatcheva-Datchary P, Bäckhed F. From dietary fiber to host physiology: short-chain fatty acids as key bacterial metabolites. Cell. 2016;165(6):1332–45.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  57. Stilling RM, van de Wouw M, Clarke G, Stanton C, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. The neuropharmacology of butyrate: the bread and butter of the microbiota-gut-brain axis? Neurochem Int. 2016;99:110–32.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  58. Gacias M, Gaspari S, Santos P-MG, Tamburini S, Andrade M, Zhang F, et al. Microbiota-driven transcriptional changes in prefrontal cortex override genetic differences in social behavior. elife. 2016;5:e13442.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar
  59. Scott KA, Hoban AE, Clarke G, Moloney GM, Dinan TG, Cryan JF. Thinking small: towards microRNA-based therapeutics for anxiety disorders. Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2015;24(4):529–42.View ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
  60. Edgar R, Domrachev M, Lash AE. Gene expression omnibus: NCBI gene expression and hybridization array data repository. Nucleic Acids Res. 2002;30(1):207–10.View ArticlePubMedPubMed CentralGoogle Scholar

Comments

Popular posts from this blog

Scooter Duff's Theory of Cosmology [A work in progress]

Rick and Morty

An Informational Present